Google Earth–Supported Landform Learning: Product Development and Initial Evidence of Students’ Spatial-Thinking Gains

Wa Ode Samlia; Sunarty Suly Eraku; Nurfaika Nurfaika

doi:10.37905/jgej.v7i2.41158

Google Earth–Supported Landform Learning: Product Development and Initial Evidence of Students’ Spatial-Thinking Gains

Wa Ode Samlia, Sunarty Suly Eraku, Nurfaika Nurfaika

Abstract

Spatial thinking is a core competence in geography learning, yet landform topics are often taught through verbal explanation, textbooks, two-dimensional images, and static maps that provide limited opportunities for students to explore relief, scale, distance, and spatial relationships. This study developed and initially evaluated a Google Earth-supported learning environment for landform learning using the Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation (ADDIE) model. The product integrated Google Earth projects, QR-based access, 2D/3D visualization, zoom and measurement functions, location marking, and guided spatial-thinking activities. A single expert appraised the material, media, and evaluation/instrument aspects. The product obtained an overall feasibility score of 85.38%, with the media aspect receiving the highest score (91.67%), followed by evaluation (86.67%) and material (78.75%). Implementation involved 30 student respondents at SMA Negeri 2 Konawe Selatan. Mean scores increased from 74.53 on the pretest to 86.50 on the posttest. All respondents obtained higher posttest scores, and the mean normalized gain was 0.488, indicating a moderate increase; 10.0% of students were in the high-gain category, 86.7% in the moderate category, and 3.3% in the low category. These results indicate that the developed learning environment is feasible and can support spatial exploration and learning gains. Because the implementation used a one-group pretest-posttest design, the score increase should be interpreted as initial evidence rather than a causal treatment effect.

Keywords

Geography education; Google Earth; Landforms; Spatial thinking; Virtual globe

Full Text:

PDF

References

Akçayır, M., & Akçayır, G. (2017). Advantages and challenges associated with augmented reality for education: A systematic review of the literature. Educational Research Review, 20, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.11.002

Arztmann, M., Domínguez Alfaro, J. L., Hornstra, L., Wong, J., Jeuring, J., & Kester, L. (2025). To move or not to move? The effect of active versus passive pre-training on cognitive load and in-game performance in an AR game. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(6), 2251–2270. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13565

Bagher, M. M., Sajjadi, P., Wallgrün, J. O., LaFemina, P., & Klippel, A. (2023). Virtual reality for geospatial education: Immersive technologies enhance sense of embodiment. Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 50(3), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/15230406.2022.2122569

Bokingo, M. F., Rusiyah, R., Nurfaika, N., Lahay, R. J., & Hendra, H. (2023). Pengembangan media pembelajaran berbasis augmented reality pada pembelajaran geografi materi dinamika litosfer. Social Landscape Journal, 4(3), 212–223. https://doi.org/10.56680/slj.v4i3.53977

Bolkas, D., O’Banion, M., Parisi, E. I., Bauer, P., & Detchev, I. (2024). Demonstration of immersive technologies for geospatial learning. ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, X-5-2024, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-X-5-2024-1-2024

Branch, R. M. (2009). Instructional design: The ADDIE approach. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09506-6

Buchner, J., Buntins, K., & Kerres, M. (2022). The impact of augmented reality on cognitive load and performance: A systematic review. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(1), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12617

Cook, M. L., Sheffield, S. L., Ryan, J. G., Bebeau, C. M., & Rodgers, M. (2025). Enhancing geoscience education through immersive virtual field trips: Student perspectives and implications for broadening participation. Journal of Geoscience Education, 73(4), 352–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/10899995.2025.2537995

Cuendet, S., Bonnard, Q., Do-Lenh, S., & Dillenbourg, P. (2013). Designing augmented reality for the classroom. Computers & Education, 68, 557–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.02.015

Duarte, L., Teodoro, A. C., & Gonçalves, H. (2022). Evaluation of spatial thinking ability based on exposure to geographical information systems (GIS) concepts in the context of higher education. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 11(8), Article 417. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11080417

Dumako, N. O., Eraku, S. S., & Pambudi, M. R. (2025). Pengembangan media pembelajaran geografi pada materi sistem informasi geografis (SIG) untuk meningkatkan hasil belajar siswa kelas X SMA Negeri 6 Kota Gorontalo menggunakan Edpuzzle. Jurnal Riset dan Pengabdian Interdisipliner, 2(3), 468–473. https://doi.org/10.37905/jrpi.v2i3.31970

Edler, D., Wiktorin, D., Becker, G., Schweins, U., Reichert, K., Keil, J., & Dickmann, F. (2025). The potential of immersive virtual reality for teaching geography in schools. KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information, 75(4), 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42489-025-00204-1

Elford, D., Lancaster, S. J., & Jones, G. A. (2022). Exploring the effect of augmented reality on cognitive load, attitude, spatial ability, and stereochemical perception. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 31(3), 322–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-022-09957-0

Garzón, J., & Acevedo, J. (2019). Meta-analysis of the impact of augmented reality on students’ learning gains. Educational Research Review, 27, 244–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.04.001

Hake, R. R. (1998). Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of Physics, 66(1), 64–74. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.18809

Ishikawa, T. (2016). Spatial thinking in geographic information science: Students’ geospatial conceptions, map-based reasoning, and spatial visualization ability. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 106(1), 76–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2015.1064342

Jaeger, A. J. (2024). Google Earth as a tool for supporting geospatial thinking. Land, 13(12), Article 2218. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13122218

Jian, Y., & Abu Bakar, J. A. (2024). Comparing cognitive load in learning spatial ability: Immersive learning environment vs. digital learning media. Discover Sustainability, 5, Article 111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00310-6

Koç, T., & Topu, F. B. (2022). Using three-dimensional geospatial technology in primary school: Students’ achievements, spatial thinking skills, cognitive load levels, experiences and teachers’ opinions. Education and Information Technologies, 27(4), 4925–4954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10810-x

Koumpouros, Y. (2024). Revealing the true potential and prospects of augmented reality in education. Smart Learning Environments, 11, Article 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-023-00288-0

Lawson, A. P., Martella, A. M., LaBonte, K., Delgado, C. Y., Zhao, F., Gluck, J. A., Munns, M. E., Wells LeRoy, A., & Mayer, R. E. (2024). Confounded or controlled? A systematic review of media comparison studies involving immersive virtual reality for STEM education. Educational Psychology Review, 36(3), Article 69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-024-09908-8

Li, S., Jiao, X., Cai, S., & Shen, Y. (2025). Enhancing AR-based learning environments for STEM education: A design-based study on design features, kinematics learning and mathematics self-efficacy. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(4), 1438–1462. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13528

Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.007

McKenney, S., & Reeves, T. C. (2018). Conducting educational design research (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315105642

Meeradji, H., Eraku, S. S., & Masruroh. (2024). Pengembangan media pembelajaran berbantuan Nearpod pada mata pelajaran geografi materi dinamika litosfer di kelas X SMA Negeri 5 Gorontalo. Jurnal Samudra Geografi, 7(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.33059/jsg.v7i2.10890

Mokmin, N. A. M., Hanjun, S., Jing, C., & Qi, S. (2024). Impact of an AR-based learning approach on the learning achievement, motivation, and cognitive load of students on a design course. Journal of Computers in Education, 11(2), 557–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-023-00270-2

Na, H., Staudt Willet, K. B., & Kim, C. (2025). Investigating the impact of AR technologies on geometric learning in primary school: A comparison between marker-based and markerless AR. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(6), 2502–2521. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13584

Nissen, J. M., Talbot, R. M., Thompson, A. N., & Van Dusen, B. (2018). Comparison of normalized gain and Cohen’s d for analyzing gains on concept inventories. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 14(1), Article 010115. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.14.010115

Ortiz-Guerrero, C., & Loizzo, J. (2024). Rocks really rock: Electronic field trips via Web Google Earth can generate positive impacts in attitudes toward Earth sciences in middle- and high-school students. Geoscience Communication, 7(2), 101–119. https://doi.org/10.5194/gc-7-101-2024

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2006). The content validity index: Are you sure you know what’s being reported? Critique and recommendations. Research in Nursing & Health, 29(5), 489–497. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20147

Poupard, M., Larrue, F., Sauzéon, H., & Tricot, A. (2025). A systematic review of immersive technologies for education: Learning performance, cognitive load and intrinsic motivation. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(1), 5–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13503

Pratama, M. I. L., Yusuf, D., Maryati, S., Rusiyah, R., Kobi, W., Melo, R. H., Pambudi, M. R., Masruroh, M., Hendra, H., & Asrul, A. (2025). Expanding spatial understanding through mobile augmented reality: A contemporary synthesis of pedagogical, technological, and cognitive dimensions in geography education. Geosfera: Jurnal Penelitian Geografi, 4(2), 242–252. https://doi.org/10.37905/geojpg.v4i2.35155

Schmidt, R., & Stumpe, B. (2025). Systematic review of mobile augmented reality applications in geography education. Review of Education, 13(1), e70042. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.70042

Semken, S., Mead, C., Foley, K., Ruberto, T., Bruce, G., & Anbar, A. D. (2025). Research on teaching geoscience with virtual field experiences. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 53, 425–442. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060923-115406

Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton Mifflin.

Şimşek, B., Direkci, B., Koparan, B., Canbulat, M., Gülmez, M., & Nalçacıgil, E. (2025). Examining the effect of augmented reality experience duration on reading comprehension and cognitive load. Education and Information Technologies, 30(2), 1445–1464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12864-z

Spangenberger, P., Matthes, N., Kapp, F., Kruse, L., & Plass, J. L. (2025). Orchestrating iVR technology in an authentic classroom setting and its effects on factual knowledge, comprehension and transfer. Educational Technology Research and Development, 73(1), 387–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-024-10409-2

Thayaseelan, K., Zhai, Y., Li, S., & Liu, X. (2024). Revalidating a measurement instrument of spatial thinking ability for junior and high school students. Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research, 6(1), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-024-00095-8

Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 352–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028446

Wang, L., Zhang, Q., & Sun, D. (2025). Exploring the impact of an augmented reality-integrated mathematics curriculum on students’ spatial skills in elementary school. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 23(1), 387–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-024-10473-3

Wu, H. K., Lee, S. W. Y., Chang, H. Y., & Liang, J. C. (2013). Current status, opportunities and challenges of augmented reality in education. Computers & Education, 62, 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.024

Xiang, X., & Liu, Y. (2017). Understanding ‘change’ through spatial thinking using Google Earth in secondary geography. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 33(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12166

Yang, Y., Du, W., Mavrikis, M., & Geraniou, E. (2026). Spatial skill development through augmented reality in mathematics education: A scoping review. Digital Experiences in Mathematics Education, 12(2), 277–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40751-025-00187-8

DOI: https://doi.org/10.37905/jgej.v7i2.41158